Moving the Dead: From Churchyards to Cemeteries

When we visit old churches in Europe and the Americas, say older than the mid-19th century, we expect to find graves in the churchyards and in the churches themselves, under the floors, in crypts, in the walls. The two medieval parish churches below are an example. The first is in Eyam, Derbyshire, the other in Beddington, South London.

In the Crypt Café in St. Martin in the Fields, London, you can walk and even dance to jazz on the graves of the dead. None of them have gotten up to join the fun, as far as I know. 

Modern churches seldom host the dead, or not very many. Instead, we find them in large cemeteries, usually well away from the old centers of towns and cities.

Why is this? In part, the shift occurred to the rapid growth of population, especially in urban areas. During the industrial revolution, urban populations grew exponentially. New cities mushroomed where once there were mere villages or small towns. Many old cities expanded enormously. London grew from about 600,000 in 1700 to over 4 million by 1900.      

Another development that promoted the change in burial practices was increasing acceptance of the miasma theory of disease. This was the idea that disease spread through bad air, or unpleasant smelling miasmas. 

The main source of miasmas was said to be decomposing organic matter. Swamp and marshes were a major source of bad air (Italian: mal'aria) and many doctors attributed fevers to the gases that arose from them. The bad air theory survives in our name for an ancient disease that remains a major killer, malaria. It is one of the quintessential "miasmatic" diseases. 

Miasmas were blamed for numerous other killer diseases, including typhoid, yellow fever, and one that terrorized 19th century cities: cholera. The color lithograph below, by Robert Seymour (1831), imagines cholera as a death-bearing ghostly cloud.

In the case of cholera and many other infectious diseases of urban areas, the major source of miasmas was believed to human and animal wastes. Disposal of organic wastes became a bigger problem as population densities grew. And they far faster than effective sanitary infrastructures. As historian Stephen Marcus wrote of 1840s Manchester, "people were literally living in shit." 

Miasma theory contributed to demands for urban sanitary reform. Although they knew nothing of the role of germs, advocates of the theory campaigned for the cleaning up of noxious streets and privies, removal of human wastes through sewage systems, and the provision of clean water to houses. 

They also targeted something else: churchyard burials. The growth of urban populations outstripped the burial space in the church cemeteries. As they became more crowded, churchyards overflowed with bodies whose decomposition often produced foul smells, especially during major epidemics. 

The solution, Miasmatists believed, was to ban church burials and create large, parklike cemeteries on the outskirts of towns, away from densely populated areas. The idea produced a lot of opposition from people who believed that burial near the church placed them closer to God. In the end, however, the sanitary reformers won the debate. For good or evil, cities relocated the dead and altered the urban environment in a significant way. 

Below are a few examples of early ex-urban cemeteries:

Highgate Cemetery, North London

Putney Vale Cemetery, Southwest London

Magnolia Cemetery, Charleston, South Carolina

    


 

American Exceptionalism Revisited

I originally wrote this piece a while back, while still under the illusion that the USA retained SOME potential as a force for good. Trump's reelection and the MUSK dictatorship have torn away the veil of that illusion for the time being, maybe forever. 

American Exceptionalism holds that the USA is fundamentally different from other countries, usually with the implication that it is also superior. The idea stems from the belief that through its revolution, America broke free from the chains and constraints of the “Old World.”  

The new country had a duty, a mission, to spread the benefits of its institutions to the rest of humanity, benefits like individual freedom, republicanism, democracy, equality before the law, a free market economy, and religious freedom.

None of these ideas or institutions originated in the United States. All can be traced to earlier history, from the Greco-Roman world and European history from the Middle Ages to the eighteenth century Enlightenment. 

The Patriots appealed to “Anglo-Saxon Liberty,” Magna Carta (1215), the English Revolutions and British philosophy, to justify claims to individual freedom and legal equality. In the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson drew heavily on the ideas of English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704). The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and The Irish Remonstrance (1317) contain similar arguments. 

There was nothing new about a republic. The Founding Fathers were influenced by the Roman Republic, founded five centuries before Christ. The Netherlands, Venice, Genoa, and the Swiss Confederation were or had been republics for hundreds of years by 1776. Even Britain had been a republic as well, though for only eleven years (1649-1660).

The US was not a democracy in its origins, and in some respects it still is not. The makers of the Constitution were generally opposed to democracy, which they equated with mob rule. They created the Electoral College to ensure that presidents were not elected by the popular vote.* Their distrust of democracy also partly explains why the Senate is a thoroughly undemocratic body, with two Senators from every state, regardless of population. State legislatures, not the voters, elected senators until 1913. 

Voting was restricted to white males before the Civil War, and some states enforced literacy tests and poll taxes. Women did not get the right to vote or hold public office until 1919, except in a couple of western states. After the end of slavery, many states denied blacks of civil rights, including voting rights.

As for free market economics, Scottish philosopher Adam Smith published the founding text in 1776, The Wealth of Nations. His concern, however, was with the good of consumers (everybody) not employers and traders, who he viewed as a conniving, dishonest bunch in general.  

Smith was more sympathetic to workers. He recognized that they were in a weak bargaining position vis a vis the merchants and employers. Not surprisingly, today's capitalists seldom dwell on that part of Smith’s work. Nor do they tend to highlight his robust condemnation of monopolies and government subsidies to companies, AKA socialism for the wealthy. 

Much is made of "pilgrims" coming to America to enjoy freedom of worship. Some colonists came for that reason, but once they got their freedom, they denied it to others, as Roger Williams and the Quakers found out. 

The idea of religious freedom in the West arose out of the deadly Wars of Religion that followed the Protestant Reformation. The Dutch introduced religious toleration in the late 16^th century, the British by the late 17th. Enlightenment thinkers in Europe advocated complete freedom of religious belief. People in America were part of that discussion. They did not invent it.

The view that the USA is morally superior to other nations is belied by its history of slavery and segregation, horrific treatment of Native Americans, and discrimination against immigrants of “inferior races," including the Irish, Asians, Jews, Southern and Eastern Europeans, and Hispanics.

Historically, the US has been all too exceptional in its insistence on other countries obeying international laws and moral standards while failing to observe them itself. It can't even obey or execute its own laws, as witnessed by the re-election of Donald Trump after inciting an insurrection on January 6, 2021 and being convicted of numerous crimes. 

The first month of Trump's, or Elon Musk's, administration reveals that the USA is not protected by a so-called perfect constitution. The cover is lifted off, the veil of illusion gone. 

The Great Experiment in liberty seems destined to end  in a fascist dictatorship, unless Americans rouse themselves from their lethargy and stop the current trajectory. There is still great value in the opening words of the Declaration of Independence. 

The USA is quite exceptional in other ways. It is one of the most violent countries on earth. The most coveted right in American culture is the right to possess firearms of the most potent type. With millions of people armed to the teeth with semi-automatic weapons, it is hardly surprising that mass shootings are an almost everyday occurrence. 

The USA is the only developed nation without a system of universal health care. Countries with considerably less wealth have some kind of system that covers the entire population. Not surprisingly, the USA also leads the world in medical bankruptcies. 

*Some Southern slaveholders argued that white male democracy was possible, but only with a large population of slaves to do most of the physical work, freeing the white elite to handle governance. 

If you enjoyed this post and would like to become a follower of my blog, just click on the blue "FOLLOW" button on the right side of the first page. Below there you can also find my previous posts. Thanks!