Suffragette and Anti-Suffragette Posters

The Suffragettes were followers of an organization founded in the UK in 1903 by a Manchester widow, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia. They members were mostly middle class women determined to use radical measures if necessary to secure the right to vote, the "suffrage." They called it the Women's Social and Political Union, or WSPU for short. 

Women had been petitioning peacefully for voting rights for decades. John Stuart Mill had proposed a bill in Parliament to enfranchise women as early as 1867, but it and later attempts failed. The women of the WSPU decided that it was necessary to get militant. 

At first they resorted to mass demonstrations and heckling anti-suffrage politicians at meetings. They went on to chain themselves to the railings around Parliament. They employed vandalism, such as pouring jam and honey into mail boxes. 

Using hammers concealed in their handbags, they smashed the large display windows in the new department stores. They burned "Votes for Women" in acid on those bastions of male privilege, golf courses. More dangerously, they turned to arson, carefully directed at empty buildings. 

When jailed, they went on hunger strikes, a protest tactic they invented. Mahatma Gandhi, a young lawyer in England at the time, took notice. He later used the technique in his campaign to free India from British rule.  

The first suffragette poster here -- perhaps the most striking and famous of them -- refers to an act Parliament passed in 1913. It allowed the authorities to release jailed suffragettes who went on hunger strikes when they became dangerously thin, then rearrest them after they fattened up to complete their sentence. The Suffragettes dubbed it "The Cat and Mouse Act." 

The Liberal Party was in power in Britain when the act was passed, and the suffragettes of the WSPU (The UK Women's Social and Political Union) made the most of the law's conflict with proclaimed Liberal values of justice, freedom, and tolerance. 

The failure of the Cat and Mouse Act act made the concession of women's suffrage in the UK almost inevitable. The measure was postponed by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, but women over 30 gained the vote in 1918. In 1928 the vote was extended equally to all women and all men over the age of 21. Only men who were heads of households had the vote before then. 

The poster "Convicts and Lunatics have no vote" emphasizes the fact that women, even the most well educated women, were classed with convicts and the mentally incompetent in being denied the right to vote for Parliament.

The next poster stresses the handicap women labored under in the race of life without access to the vote, represented by the sail on the man's boat. The houses of Parliament hover symbolically in the distance.

Prior to the Cat and Mouse Act, the authorities had dealt with hunger strikers by force feeding them. The Suffragettes and their supporters denounced the method as a form of torture. It was not only unpleasant but potentially dangerous if resisted. If food was forced into the lungs it could lead to pneumonia. The adverse publicity this strategy produced is what led the government to adopt the Cat and Mouse Act. 

In the same year, 1913, the Suffragettes got their first martyr. Emily Davison ran out in in front of the king's horse at the Derby. She died several days later. Prior to her martyrdom, she had been force fed 49 times in prison. Some of the women were force-fed hundreds of times.

The Suffragettes were active propagandists who spread their message through newsletters edited by one of the daughters of leader Emmeline Pankhurst, Christabel. Below are posters advertising these works.

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The opponents of women suffrage countered with propaganda and posters of their own. They denounced the Suffragettes as unfeminine or "unwomanly." In the poster below "Clementine" is portrayed as a unlikeable, destructive little terror, a future Suffragette, putting trousers on.

Another anti-suffragette strategy was to portray the agitators as unattractive, man-hating, "old maids." 

"A Suffragette's Home" warns that politically involved women will neglect their "natural" domestic duties and imperil family life. The "breadwinner" and the children will be the ones to suffer. 

"Everybody Works but Mother" envisions a future role reversal in which women take over politics and deny men the right to vote.

"No Votes, Thank You" presents the "normal" and "natural" woman  as the majority of "womanhood" opposed to having the vote. Behind her a wild, mannish, hammer-wielding Suffragette runs at Parliament. The hammer is a reminder that some Suffragettes had used that tool to smash windows in posh West End shops.

"What I would do with the Suffragists" is a much less subtle approach to dealing with these "problem" women. 

Ending on a more positive note, we have a poster celebrating the coming of Woman Suffrage.

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Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Smallpox Inoculation

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu played an important role in promoting the adoption of the first "vaccine" -- before the word "vaccine" was invented. This was inoculation for smallpox, using actual pus from smallpox pustules. 

Inoculation was being practiced in several parts of the world well before western medicine took notice of it. Knowledge of it spread to western Europe and the Americas during the early 18th century.

The most influential source of knowledge came from the Ottoman Empire. The most famous conveyor of the knowledge was Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whose husband was British ambassador to the Ottoman Sultan for several years in the 1710s. 

Lady Mary learned about the practice from Greek peasant women. She had contracted smallpox as a child, and her face still bore scars from it. Smallpox was one of the greatest killers in human history. Survivors often ended up scarred like Mary, and some were blinded by the disease. The benefit of having survived was that one was henceforth immune from it. Lady Mary had her own children inoculated while in Istanbul (then Constantinople). 

(Images: 1. Lady Mary and her son in "Turkish" dress. 2. Lady Mary with a black servant.)

After returning to Britain, Lady Mary encouraged physicians to experiment with the procedure in the 1720s. One of the most important experiments involved the inoculation of the children of Princess Caroline of Anspach, wife of the future George II.

The princess was no doubt influenced by the death from smallpox of Queen Mary, wife of William III, in 1694 (Image: Queen Mary).

The success of these experiments, combined with news of similar successes in America promoted by Rev. Cotton Mather of Massachusetts and others, led to the practice becoming common in the British Empire by the mid-18th century. (Image: Cotton Mather)

The procedure was not without its dangers. About one percent of those inoculated died. In contrast, however, natural smallpox had fatality rates often exceeding 20 per cent. After 1800, inoculation with actual smallpox was gradually replaced by the less dangerous method of using "cowpox" matter to immunize against the disease. Smallpox and the First Vaccine

The romanticized image below shows Edward Jenner inoculating James Phipps with cowpox matter from pustules on the hand of Sarah Neames, a milkmaid. She is pictured here on the far right wrapping her hand. Milkmaids and others who worked with cows sometimes became infected with cowpox, a much less serious but related viral disease.

Jenner's method gave us the words "vaccine" and "vaccination," derived from "vacca, the Latin for "cow." The spread of vaccination in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the global eradication of smallpox by 1979, the first and so far the only infectious disease to be eliminated by human action. 

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The Science Behind Mary Shelley's Frankenstein

Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein (1818) exists at the borders of Gothic horror and science fiction. Much of what she wrote in that novel was inspired by actual scientific research and experiments of her era. 

As the daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, and the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelley (1797-1851) was exposed to many of the latest scientific ideas of the time, including the idea that matter might be animated into life through chemical and/or electrical means. [Below: Two Portraits of Mary Godwin Shelley]

Although the novel does not explain how Victor Frankenstein brings his creature to life, Mary Shelley was inspired by the writings and researches of men like Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin and a friend of Mary's father), the chemist Humphrey Davy, the physicist Luigi Galvani, and her husband Percy's tutor at Eton College, Adam Walker.

In the introduction, Shelley quotes Darwin as saying that the creation of life from animated matter was not impossible. (Image: Erasmus Darwin)

Professor M. Waldman, who instructs Victor in the new creative powers of science, was probably modeled on Sir Humphrey Davy, the pioneering chemist. Waldman's character says things similar to what Davy had written. (Image: Humphrey Davy)

Davy is featured (holding the yellow pot) in this 1802 satirical cartoon by James Gillray below, a satire of the new craze for scientific experiments.

Electrical experiments "animating" dead animals and animal parts, conducted by Luigi Galvani, were another source of inspiration for Mary Shelley. (Image: Galvani)

Percy Shelley's tutor at Eton, Adam Walker, popularized Galvani's work in Britain and argued for a connection between electricity and life. (Image: illustration from Walker's book System of Familiar Philosophy, 1799)

By Shelley's time, the idea that a corpse might be "galvanized" into life by electricity was being mooted, even attempted.

In 1818, the year Shelley's novel was published, Scottish physician Dr. Andrew Ure tried to reanimate a corpse using electricity. The body of the man jerked upwards when Ure applied an electric shock, but did not, alas, come back to life. [Image: Ure's experiment]

Shelley does not mention Ure's experiment, but it and her novel both reflect the scientific knowledge and claims of her day. 

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